Joaquín Torres García (28 July 1874 – 8 August 1949), was a Uruguayan plastic artist and art theorist, also known as the founder of Constructive Universalism. In 1979, most of his works were destroyed in a fire that broke out in the Museum of Modern Art in Rio de Janeiro, while a large exhibition of the artist's works was being held.
The Early Years: 1874–1917
Joaquin Torres García was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, from the union of Joaquim Torres Garcia (son of Joan Torres and Rosa Fradera, rope makers from Mataró, Spain) and María García Pérez (daughter of José María García, master carpenter from the Canary Islands, and Misia Rufina Pérez, a native-born Uruguayan aristocrat).
After a difficult infancy—because of the family's economic and domestic instability—and after essentially raising himself, in 1890, Torres García decided to emigrate with the purpose of becoming a painter, having come to the conclusion that he could not receive proper training in the capital of Uruguay. Therefore, along with his entire family, he decided to travel to Europe in June 1891, at age 17. His father's family proceeded directly to Mataró, Spain. There, Torres García began to attend a local academy by day, where he learned the basics of the trade, and at night attended drawing classes in an Arts and Trades school. In 1892, the family decided to settle in Barcelona, which enabled Torres García to enroll in the School of Fine Arts (Escuela de Bellas Artes de Barcelona).
At Barcelona's School of Fine Arts, Torres García fell in with such future renowned painters as Joaquim Mir, Joaquim Sunyer, Ricard Canals and Isidre Nonell, all of whom were influenced by the popular French Impressionism of the moment, and by the writings of Émile Zola. The group used to paint in the suburbs of the city, imitating the painters at the vanguard of that time: Monet, Sisley, and Renoir. Because his classes were at night, Torres García decided to take advantage of the day by enrolling in the Academia Baixas, which had a better academic reputation than the School of Fine Arts.
In 1893, Torres García matriculated in the Cercle Artístic de Sant Luc, where the institution's Catholic leanings made a strong impression on him. There, he met Josep Pijoan, Eduardo Marquina, Pere Moles and Luis de Zulueta. At the beginning of 1894, Torres García participated in the Foreign Section of the General Exposition of Fine Arts (Exposiciones Generales de Bellas Artes). The next year, he began to collaborate with the Catholic Typographic Bookstore (Librería Tipográfica Católica), a work that continued until 1899. In 1897, he presented his works in the exhibition hall of La Vanguardia Newspaper and participated in a collective exhibition in the Artistic Circle of Sant Lluc (Socios del Círculo Artístico de Sant Lluc). During this period, Torres not only struck up friendships with painters and sculptors of the likes of Manolo Hugué, Pichot, the brothers Oleguer and Sebastià Junyent, the brothers Sunyer, Pablo Picasso, the brothers Joan and Juli González, and Planella, but also with musicians such as Antoni Ribera. In the ensuing years, Torres García published various drawings in La Vanguardia under the name of "Quim Torras," and in the magazines Iris, Barcelona Cómica and La Saeta.
From 1901, Torres García started to paint frescos, attracted by the timelessness of the older works created using this technique, and began a dynamic working relationship with a group that mixed together painters, musicians, sculptors and poets; all of the above-mentioned would meet in Julio González's studio, attend artistic get-togethers at the Círculo de Sant Lluc, classical music concerts at the Liceu, and debates and conversations at Els Quatre Gats, the Soler tailor-shop, and other locations. In May 1903, he published an article in the monthly magazine Universitat Catalana entitled "Augusta et Augusta," affirming that artistic form would never copy reality and defending his idealist conception of art.
He began to do murals, first with Adrià Gual and later in the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí's remodeling of the La Seu. Gaudi hired him later with Llongueiras and Iu Pascualfor the interior restoration of La Catedral de Santa María de Palma de Mallorca. He worked on the first two lateral stained glass windows and the rose window of the Capilla Real, as well as windows for the Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. This collaboration lasted until 1905, exposing Torres to Gaudí's collaborative and interdisciplinary vision of work, as well as the necessity to consider painting and architecture as a union.
He gave sketching classes in private homes, such as the home of Don Jaime Piña y Segura, father of Torres García's wife-to-be Manolita Piña i Rubíes, as well as in the home of composer Isaac Albéniz where he taught Albéniz's son Julio. In 1904, he received his first mural commissions: in the chapel of the Santísimo Sacramento of the church of San Agustín in Barcelona (which murals were destroyed during the Spanish Civil War) and the apse of the Iglesia de la Divina Pastora in Sarrià, which was quickly covered by other paintings and is no longer visible today.
In 1905, his style of work formally evolved and already evident was that which his enemies most used to attack him—"Planism"—commonly known as "defectos de factura" (carefree or enlightened, because the painting was to be agreeable to the sight, the pictorial qualities flattering to the senses). In 1906, he untertook to separate the superficiality that underlay his works, seeking to find the fount of all civilization, Greek art.
In 1907, Torres García began his teaching job in the Mont d’Or school, founded by the pedagogue Joan Palau Vera in Sarrià, which also introduced for the first time in Spain life drawing. He married Manolita Piña 20 August 1909 in Barcelona. In this period, Torres García substituted formal elements of Greek origin for those specific to Catalonia (villas, farmers, labourers, etc.) imbuing his work with a contemporary Catalonian spirit.
The Argentine journalist Roberto Payró commissioned from Torres García two large panels for the Uruguayan pavilion at the Brussels International exposition of 1910 in which he represented allegories of agriculture and of ranching. In passing, he visited Florence, Rome and Paris. On his return, he settled in Vilassar de Mar, where his first daughter, Olimpia, was born. His work delighted some of his followers in Barcelona, such as Eugeni d'Ors, Roman Jori, Manuel Folch i Torres and Josep Clarà, who on his return convinced him to work on artistic projects that would bring renown to Catalonia. Several distinct commissions in the old palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia (the Catalan government), which had then been recently purchased as the seat of the provincial council of Barcelona, ranged from some stained glass for the windows of the hall of the Consell de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya, to decorating the walls of the Salón de Sant Jordi. This last project, a series of murals, was the largest and most important in Torres-García's life, which he was expected to execute in accord with the ideological guidelines laid out by the president of this institution, Enric Prat de la Riba. After a trip to Italy to study fresco technique, he established himself in Terrassa, to which he had moved the Mont d’Or School.
In May 1913 he published his first book, Notes sobre Art ("Notes on Art"), which marked the de facto break with his principal theoretical defender, Eugeni d'Ors. D'Ors believed that Torres García had idealogically usurped the reference to the historic-iconographic Catalan identity that he had included in his book. On 19 June 1913 his second child, Augusto was born. He began to execute the first fresco for the Salón de Sant Jordi, La Cataluña eterna ("Eternal Catalonia"). At the end of that same month, be began the final stage of his first fresco for the San Jorge Salon (gallery), La Cataluńa eterna. At the same time he was finishing the fresco, Torres García founded the Escuela de Decoración (School of Decoration/Decorative Arts) in Sarrià with a group of young pupils, with the specific intent of founding a school of muralists and decorators who would put his theories into practice. In August of the next year (1914), the Mont d'Or School closed due to bankruptcy. Torres García decided to remain in Tarrasa, where he designed and decorated what would become his residence, Mon Repòs.
On 10 December 1915, his third child was born at Mon Repòs, a daughter baptized Ifigenia, Aglás y Elena. In 1917, he met the Uruguayan painter Rafael Barradas, an important person in his life since he served as a catalyst for his artistic evolution toward abstraction, pursuing in his work a closeness to contemporary art from the complementary prism of tradition. Upon the death of Prat de la Riba in 1917, Torres García immediately suspended work on his decorative jobs in the Salón de Sant Jordi, as well as his commissions. Beset by economic scarcity, he launched himself into a new activity: toymaking.
In 1920, Torres García left with his family in tow for Paris. He never returned to Barcelona. From there he set off for New York City, where he met such Spaniards as Rafael Sala, Joan Agell and Claudio Orejuela. He also met Max Weber, the musician Edgar Varèse, Charles Logasa, John Xcéron, the Whitney sisters, the painters Joseph Stella, David Karfunkle, Marcel Duchamp, and finally the Tawsend couple, who put him in contact with the Society of Independent Artists, founded by Katherine Sophie Dreier, Marcel Duchamp, and Man Ray, among others.
In the absence of any income, Torres García decided to return to Europe—specifically Italy—to dedicate himself anew to the toy business. He founded the Aladdin Toy Company, which received important orders from the Dutch house Metz & Co. In 1924, his fourth son, the painter Horacio, was born in Livorno, Italy. Charles Logasa encouraged Torres García to paint again with the intention of organizing an exhibition in Paris. Receiving favorable reviews, he decided to move his family to Paris in 1926. In 1928, he and Jean Hélion, Alfred Aberdam, Pierre Daura and Ernest Engel Rozier put on the exhibition Cinq refusés par le jury du salón d’Automne ("Five refused by the jury of the Autumn Salon"). Among the attendees was Theo Van Doesburg, with whom he initiated a great friendship and extensive collaboration.
In this same period, he met Michel Seuphor, who presented him to Jean and Sophie Arp, Adya and Otto Van Rees, Luigi Russolo, and Georges Vantongerloo. Torres García was soon admitted to the group's meetings, which were headed by Piet Mondrian. In these meetings were forged the nucleus of the future group Cercle et Carré ("Circle and Square"), promoter of the first exhibition of constructivist and abstract art in 1930, and of a magazine also called Cercle et Carré. Torres García contributed to constructivism the order and logic found in rules of composition such as the golden ratio and the inclusion of symbolic figures that represent man, knowledge, science, and the city.
In 1932, he left Paris because of the economic crisis and took up residence in the Madrid of the Second Spanish Republic, establishing in 1933 the Grupo Constructivo, with whom he exhibited in the Autumn Salon. The group wrote three texts called Guiones ("Guides") that reflected the spirit from which the group was formed and in which is evident the contructivist influence of Torres García.
In 1934, a year and a half after his arrival in Paris, Torres García decided to move for the last time to Uruguay, to his native Montevideo, where he was received as a member of the European artistic elite. He immediately exhibited his progressive artistic theories in a country rooted in the conservative European sensibility, that imposed the epithet of "quality" on everything imported from the old country, which soon turned Torres García into a controversial figure.
Torres García founded the Uruguay Society of Arts ("Sociedad de las Artes del Uruguay") with the objective of integrating all the arts and acting as a nexus between artists and the public. He presented the first retrospective of his work, in which his oldest son Augusto also participated, and began to give classes on the history of art at the Escuela Taller de Artes Plásticas. He rented a space at 1037 Calle Uruguay, which he converted into an exposition space known as Estudio 1037, and organized a first art showing in which participated national artists—Carmelo de Arzadun, Gilberto Bellini, José Cúneo Perinetti, Luis Mazzey, Bernabé Michelena, Zoma Baitler, Carlos Prevosti, Augusto Torres-García, and himself—as well as foreigners—Germán Cueto, Pere Daura, E. Engel, Glycka, Jean Hélion, Luc Lafnet, Charles Logasa, O. Van Rees and Eduardo Yepes.
In 1934, Torres García was named honorary professor of the Faculty of Architecture of Montevideo and in 1935 he published a book Estructura. He created the Asociación de Arte Constructivo (AAC) ("Constructive Art Association"), impregnated with the spirit of a truly American art. Through the society met many artists, such as Rosa Acle, J. Álvarez Marqués, Carmelo de Arzadum, Alfredo Cáceres, María Cańizas, Luis Castellanos, Amalia Nieto, Héctor Ragni, Lia Rivas, Carmelo Rivello, Alberto Soriano, Augusto Torres, Horacio Torres and Nicolás Urta. In 1936 the first issue of the AAC's publicity piece Círculo y Cuadrado ("Circle and Square") was published, continuing the French Cercle et Carré. The Círculo y Cuadrado published seven issues between 1936 and 1938, followed by a special final issue in December 1943. Its motto was "Total intransigence against naturalism." The intense teaching activity that Torres García maintained from 1934 to 1938 did not produce the results he had hoped and he questioned the continuation of the AAC in its current form.
In 1938, Torres García began to show influence by Pre-Columbian and indigenous art, such as is apparent in his work Monumento Cósmico, which juxtaposes figures like those he used in Paris, figures that made reference to man and the city using the traditional indigenous symbolism of South America.
From a philosophical point of view, Torres García was strongly influenced by the Theosophy of Helena Blavatsky and the Anthroposophy of Rudolf Steiner, as were other artists of the day, such as Piet Mondrian, Paul Klee, and Vasili Kandinski. In 1932, Torres García had joined the Theosophy Society in Uruguay, where he gave a talk entitled "Geometry, Creation, Proportion."
His despair at the difficulty of establishing constructivist art in Uruguay led Torres García to propose a figurative journey reviving the use of constructivism and using Native American cultural symbolism, creating in 1943 the Torres García Studio (Taller Torres García), or Studio of the South (Taller del Sur), composed of young artists. The next year, Torres García and his students undertook the commission to paint constructivist murals in the Martirené pavilion of the Hospital de Saint Bois on the outskirts of the capital. They executed a total of 35 murals, of which Torres García painted the seven largest while supervising the rest. In 1944, he was granted the Premio Nacional de Pintura ("National Prize of Painting"), receiving a great homage with participation by Pablo Picasso, Gregorio Marañón, Pablo Neruda, Lipschitz, Braque, and Ozenfant. That year he also published his own artistic theory, called universalismo constructivo ("Constructive Universalism").
After his death in Montevideo 8 August 1949, the studio continued to function, being directed by some of his most dedicated students, until it finally closed in 1962 (although there is controversy regarding this date). The last official publication of the studio saw the light of day in January 1961 and was the third issue of the magazine Escuela del Sur ("The School of the South") which had replaced Removedor, whose final issue, number 28, was July–August 1953.
Torres García's call to artists not to renounce being Latin Americans, pretending to be contemporary through the formal investigation in their artistic careers, provided a new dimension in the construction of a modern and American language, constituting one of the definitive episodes in the Latin American vanguards.
The Early Years: 1874–1917
Joaquin Torres García was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, from the union of Joaquim Torres Garcia (son of Joan Torres and Rosa Fradera, rope makers from Mataró, Spain) and María García Pérez (daughter of José María García, master carpenter from the Canary Islands, and Misia Rufina Pérez, a native-born Uruguayan aristocrat).
After a difficult infancy—because of the family's economic and domestic instability—and after essentially raising himself, in 1890, Torres García decided to emigrate with the purpose of becoming a painter, having come to the conclusion that he could not receive proper training in the capital of Uruguay. Therefore, along with his entire family, he decided to travel to Europe in June 1891, at age 17. His father's family proceeded directly to Mataró, Spain. There, Torres García began to attend a local academy by day, where he learned the basics of the trade, and at night attended drawing classes in an Arts and Trades school. In 1892, the family decided to settle in Barcelona, which enabled Torres García to enroll in the School of Fine Arts (Escuela de Bellas Artes de Barcelona).
At Barcelona's School of Fine Arts, Torres García fell in with such future renowned painters as Joaquim Mir, Joaquim Sunyer, Ricard Canals and Isidre Nonell, all of whom were influenced by the popular French Impressionism of the moment, and by the writings of Émile Zola. The group used to paint in the suburbs of the city, imitating the painters at the vanguard of that time: Monet, Sisley, and Renoir. Because his classes were at night, Torres García decided to take advantage of the day by enrolling in the Academia Baixas, which had a better academic reputation than the School of Fine Arts.
In 1893, Torres García matriculated in the Cercle Artístic de Sant Luc, where the institution's Catholic leanings made a strong impression on him. There, he met Josep Pijoan, Eduardo Marquina, Pere Moles and Luis de Zulueta. At the beginning of 1894, Torres García participated in the Foreign Section of the General Exposition of Fine Arts (Exposiciones Generales de Bellas Artes). The next year, he began to collaborate with the Catholic Typographic Bookstore (Librería Tipográfica Católica), a work that continued until 1899. In 1897, he presented his works in the exhibition hall of La Vanguardia Newspaper and participated in a collective exhibition in the Artistic Circle of Sant Lluc (Socios del Círculo Artístico de Sant Lluc). During this period, Torres not only struck up friendships with painters and sculptors of the likes of Manolo Hugué, Pichot, the brothers Oleguer and Sebastià Junyent, the brothers Sunyer, Pablo Picasso, the brothers Joan and Juli González, and Planella, but also with musicians such as Antoni Ribera. In the ensuing years, Torres García published various drawings in La Vanguardia under the name of "Quim Torras," and in the magazines Iris, Barcelona Cómica and La Saeta.
From 1901, Torres García started to paint frescos, attracted by the timelessness of the older works created using this technique, and began a dynamic working relationship with a group that mixed together painters, musicians, sculptors and poets; all of the above-mentioned would meet in Julio González's studio, attend artistic get-togethers at the Círculo de Sant Lluc, classical music concerts at the Liceu, and debates and conversations at Els Quatre Gats, the Soler tailor-shop, and other locations. In May 1903, he published an article in the monthly magazine Universitat Catalana entitled "Augusta et Augusta," affirming that artistic form would never copy reality and defending his idealist conception of art.
He began to do murals, first with Adrià Gual and later in the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí's remodeling of the La Seu. Gaudi hired him later with Llongueiras and Iu Pascualfor the interior restoration of La Catedral de Santa María de Palma de Mallorca. He worked on the first two lateral stained glass windows and the rose window of the Capilla Real, as well as windows for the Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia in Barcelona. This collaboration lasted until 1905, exposing Torres to Gaudí's collaborative and interdisciplinary vision of work, as well as the necessity to consider painting and architecture as a union.
He gave sketching classes in private homes, such as the home of Don Jaime Piña y Segura, father of Torres García's wife-to-be Manolita Piña i Rubíes, as well as in the home of composer Isaac Albéniz where he taught Albéniz's son Julio. In 1904, he received his first mural commissions: in the chapel of the Santísimo Sacramento of the church of San Agustín in Barcelona (which murals were destroyed during the Spanish Civil War) and the apse of the Iglesia de la Divina Pastora in Sarrià, which was quickly covered by other paintings and is no longer visible today.
In 1905, his style of work formally evolved and already evident was that which his enemies most used to attack him—"Planism"—commonly known as "defectos de factura" (carefree or enlightened, because the painting was to be agreeable to the sight, the pictorial qualities flattering to the senses). In 1906, he untertook to separate the superficiality that underlay his works, seeking to find the fount of all civilization, Greek art.
In 1907, Torres García began his teaching job in the Mont d’Or school, founded by the pedagogue Joan Palau Vera in Sarrià, which also introduced for the first time in Spain life drawing. He married Manolita Piña 20 August 1909 in Barcelona. In this period, Torres García substituted formal elements of Greek origin for those specific to Catalonia (villas, farmers, labourers, etc.) imbuing his work with a contemporary Catalonian spirit.
The Argentine journalist Roberto Payró commissioned from Torres García two large panels for the Uruguayan pavilion at the Brussels International exposition of 1910 in which he represented allegories of agriculture and of ranching. In passing, he visited Florence, Rome and Paris. On his return, he settled in Vilassar de Mar, where his first daughter, Olimpia, was born. His work delighted some of his followers in Barcelona, such as Eugeni d'Ors, Roman Jori, Manuel Folch i Torres and Josep Clarà, who on his return convinced him to work on artistic projects that would bring renown to Catalonia. Several distinct commissions in the old palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia (the Catalan government), which had then been recently purchased as the seat of the provincial council of Barcelona, ranged from some stained glass for the windows of the hall of the Consell de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya, to decorating the walls of the Salón de Sant Jordi. This last project, a series of murals, was the largest and most important in Torres-García's life, which he was expected to execute in accord with the ideological guidelines laid out by the president of this institution, Enric Prat de la Riba. After a trip to Italy to study fresco technique, he established himself in Terrassa, to which he had moved the Mont d’Or School.
In May 1913 he published his first book, Notes sobre Art ("Notes on Art"), which marked the de facto break with his principal theoretical defender, Eugeni d'Ors. D'Ors believed that Torres García had idealogically usurped the reference to the historic-iconographic Catalan identity that he had included in his book. On 19 June 1913 his second child, Augusto was born. He began to execute the first fresco for the Salón de Sant Jordi, La Cataluña eterna ("Eternal Catalonia"). At the end of that same month, be began the final stage of his first fresco for the San Jorge Salon (gallery), La Cataluńa eterna. At the same time he was finishing the fresco, Torres García founded the Escuela de Decoración (School of Decoration/Decorative Arts) in Sarrià with a group of young pupils, with the specific intent of founding a school of muralists and decorators who would put his theories into practice. In August of the next year (1914), the Mont d'Or School closed due to bankruptcy. Torres García decided to remain in Tarrasa, where he designed and decorated what would become his residence, Mon Repòs.
On 10 December 1915, his third child was born at Mon Repòs, a daughter baptized Ifigenia, Aglás y Elena. In 1917, he met the Uruguayan painter Rafael Barradas, an important person in his life since he served as a catalyst for his artistic evolution toward abstraction, pursuing in his work a closeness to contemporary art from the complementary prism of tradition. Upon the death of Prat de la Riba in 1917, Torres García immediately suspended work on his decorative jobs in the Salón de Sant Jordi, as well as his commissions. Beset by economic scarcity, he launched himself into a new activity: toymaking.
The Formative Years: 1919–1939
Along about 1919, Torres García met and associated with such people as J. V. Foix and Joan Miró. He also returned to giving private drawing and painting lessons, one of his new clients being Sigfried Ribera, son of the composer Antoni Ribera.Torres García's cover illustration for Catalan poet Joan Salvat-Papasseit's Poemes en ondes hertzianes (1919)
In the absence of any income, Torres García decided to return to Europe—specifically Italy—to dedicate himself anew to the toy business. He founded the Aladdin Toy Company, which received important orders from the Dutch house Metz & Co. In 1924, his fourth son, the painter Horacio, was born in Livorno, Italy. Charles Logasa encouraged Torres García to paint again with the intention of organizing an exhibition in Paris. Receiving favorable reviews, he decided to move his family to Paris in 1926. In 1928, he and Jean Hélion, Alfred Aberdam, Pierre Daura and Ernest Engel Rozier put on the exhibition Cinq refusés par le jury du salón d’Automne ("Five refused by the jury of the Autumn Salon"). Among the attendees was Theo Van Doesburg, with whom he initiated a great friendship and extensive collaboration.
In this same period, he met Michel Seuphor, who presented him to Jean and Sophie Arp, Adya and Otto Van Rees, Luigi Russolo, and Georges Vantongerloo. Torres García was soon admitted to the group's meetings, which were headed by Piet Mondrian. In these meetings were forged the nucleus of the future group Cercle et Carré ("Circle and Square"), promoter of the first exhibition of constructivist and abstract art in 1930, and of a magazine also called Cercle et Carré. Torres García contributed to constructivism the order and logic found in rules of composition such as the golden ratio and the inclusion of symbolic figures that represent man, knowledge, science, and the city.
In 1932, he left Paris because of the economic crisis and took up residence in the Madrid of the Second Spanish Republic, establishing in 1933 the Grupo Constructivo, with whom he exhibited in the Autumn Salon. The group wrote three texts called Guiones ("Guides") that reflected the spirit from which the group was formed and in which is evident the contructivist influence of Torres García.
In 1934, a year and a half after his arrival in Paris, Torres García decided to move for the last time to Uruguay, to his native Montevideo, where he was received as a member of the European artistic elite. He immediately exhibited his progressive artistic theories in a country rooted in the conservative European sensibility, that imposed the epithet of "quality" on everything imported from the old country, which soon turned Torres García into a controversial figure.
Torres García founded the Uruguay Society of Arts ("Sociedad de las Artes del Uruguay") with the objective of integrating all the arts and acting as a nexus between artists and the public. He presented the first retrospective of his work, in which his oldest son Augusto also participated, and began to give classes on the history of art at the Escuela Taller de Artes Plásticas. He rented a space at 1037 Calle Uruguay, which he converted into an exposition space known as Estudio 1037, and organized a first art showing in which participated national artists—Carmelo de Arzadun, Gilberto Bellini, José Cúneo Perinetti, Luis Mazzey, Bernabé Michelena, Zoma Baitler, Carlos Prevosti, Augusto Torres-García, and himself—as well as foreigners—Germán Cueto, Pere Daura, E. Engel, Glycka, Jean Hélion, Luc Lafnet, Charles Logasa, O. Van Rees and Eduardo Yepes.
In 1934, Torres García was named honorary professor of the Faculty of Architecture of Montevideo and in 1935 he published a book Estructura. He created the Asociación de Arte Constructivo (AAC) ("Constructive Art Association"), impregnated with the spirit of a truly American art. Through the society met many artists, such as Rosa Acle, J. Álvarez Marqués, Carmelo de Arzadum, Alfredo Cáceres, María Cańizas, Luis Castellanos, Amalia Nieto, Héctor Ragni, Lia Rivas, Carmelo Rivello, Alberto Soriano, Augusto Torres, Horacio Torres and Nicolás Urta. In 1936 the first issue of the AAC's publicity piece Círculo y Cuadrado ("Circle and Square") was published, continuing the French Cercle et Carré. The Círculo y Cuadrado published seven issues between 1936 and 1938, followed by a special final issue in December 1943. Its motto was "Total intransigence against naturalism." The intense teaching activity that Torres García maintained from 1934 to 1938 did not produce the results he had hoped and he questioned the continuation of the AAC in its current form.
In 1938, Torres García began to show influence by Pre-Columbian and indigenous art, such as is apparent in his work Monumento Cósmico, which juxtaposes figures like those he used in Paris, figures that made reference to man and the city using the traditional indigenous symbolism of South America.
From a philosophical point of view, Torres García was strongly influenced by the Theosophy of Helena Blavatsky and the Anthroposophy of Rudolf Steiner, as were other artists of the day, such as Piet Mondrian, Paul Klee, and Vasili Kandinski. In 1932, Torres García had joined the Theosophy Society in Uruguay, where he gave a talk entitled "Geometry, Creation, Proportion."
The Later Years: 1940–1949
In 1940, the AAC published the book 500ª Conferencia ("500th Conference"), which gathered together all of the talks Torres García had given in Montevideo since his return. The book also signaled the end of the AAC. Torres García's disappointment with regard to the creation of the group and its failure is found in the published manuscript La ciudad sin nombre ("The City Without Name"), in which Torres García reflects his disillusion with the situation.His despair at the difficulty of establishing constructivist art in Uruguay led Torres García to propose a figurative journey reviving the use of constructivism and using Native American cultural symbolism, creating in 1943 the Torres García Studio (Taller Torres García), or Studio of the South (Taller del Sur), composed of young artists. The next year, Torres García and his students undertook the commission to paint constructivist murals in the Martirené pavilion of the Hospital de Saint Bois on the outskirts of the capital. They executed a total of 35 murals, of which Torres García painted the seven largest while supervising the rest. In 1944, he was granted the Premio Nacional de Pintura ("National Prize of Painting"), receiving a great homage with participation by Pablo Picasso, Gregorio Marañón, Pablo Neruda, Lipschitz, Braque, and Ozenfant. That year he also published his own artistic theory, called universalismo constructivo ("Constructive Universalism").
I have said School of the South; because in reality, our north is the South. There must not be north, for us, except in opposition to our South. Therefore we now turn the map upside down, and then we have a true idea of our position, and not as the rest of the world wishes. The point of America, from now on, forever, insistently points to the South, our north. —Joaquín Torres García, Constructive Universalism, Bs. As., Poseidon, 1941.In 1945, he published the first issue of the magazine Removedor, which served as a place to debate criticisms of his works and those of his students, as well as a publicity tool.
After his death in Montevideo 8 August 1949, the studio continued to function, being directed by some of his most dedicated students, until it finally closed in 1962 (although there is controversy regarding this date). The last official publication of the studio saw the light of day in January 1961 and was the third issue of the magazine Escuela del Sur ("The School of the South") which had replaced Removedor, whose final issue, number 28, was July–August 1953.
Torres García's call to artists not to renounce being Latin Americans, pretending to be contemporary through the formal investigation in their artistic careers, provided a new dimension in the construction of a modern and American language, constituting one of the definitive episodes in the Latin American vanguards.
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• 21. Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
• 20. Super Mario Galaxy 2
• 19. Mass Effect 2
• 18. Grand Theft Auto IV
• 17. Portal 2
• 16. Assassins Creed: Brotherhood
• 15. Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time
• 14. Halo: Combat Evolved
• 13. Halo 3
• 12. Pokemon Black and White
• 11. Super Mario Bros
• 10. Heavy Rain
• 9. Final Fantasy VII
• 8. Metal Gear Solid 4
• 7. Portal
• 6. Red Dead Redemption
• 5. God of War
• 4. Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2
• 3. The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time
• 2. Halo: Reach
• 1. Call of Duty: Black Ops
• 49. Star Wars: Knights of the old Republic
• 47. Crysis 2
• 46. The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion
• 45. Call of Duty: World at War
• 44. Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II
• 43. Half-Life 2: Episode Two
• 42. Super Metroid
• 41. The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess
• 40. New Super Mario Bros. Wii
• 39. inFamous
• 38. Fallout 3
• 37. Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas
• 36. Gears of War 2
• 35. Bioshock
• 34. Starcraft II: Wings of Liberty
• 33. Sonic Adventures 2
• 32. Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater
• 31. Kingdom Hearts II
• 30. Mass Effect
• 29. Super Mario Galaxy
• 28. Sonic the Hedgehog
• 27. Metal Gear Solid
• 26. Assassin's Creed II
• 25. Assassin's Creed
• 24. Shadow of the Colossus
• 23. Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
• 22. Kingdom Hearts
• 21. Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
• 20. Super Mario Galaxy 2
• 19. Mass Effect 2
• 18. Grand Theft Auto IV
• 17. Portal 2
• 16. Assassins Creed: Brotherhood
• 15. Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time
• 14. Halo: Combat Evolved
• 13. Halo 3
• 12. Pokemon Black and White
• 11. Super Mario Bros
• 10. Heavy Rain
• 9. Final Fantasy VII
• 8. Metal Gear Solid 4
• 7. Portal
• 6. Red Dead Redemption
• 5. God of War
• 4. Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2
• 3. The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time
• 2. Halo: Reach
• 1. Call of Duty: Black Ops
Robert Capa (born Endre Ernő Friedmann;[1] October 22, 1913 – May 25, 1954) was a Hungarian combat photographer and photojournalist who covered five different wars: the Spanish Civil War, the Second Sino-Japanese War, World War IIacross Europe, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and the First Indochina War. He documented the course of World War II in London, North Africa, Italy, the Battle of Normandy on Omaha Beach and the liberation of Paris. His action photographs, such as those taken during the 1944 Normandy invasion, portray the violence of war with unique impact. In 1947, Capa co-founded Magnum Photos with, among others, the French photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson. The organization was the first cooperative agency for worldwide freelance photographers.
Career
Born Endre Friedmann to Dezső and Júlia Friedmann on October 22, 1913 in Budapest, Hungary. Deciding that there was little future under the regime in Hungary, he left home at 18.
Capa originally wanted to be a writer; however, he found work in photography in Berlin and grew to love the art. In 1933, he moved from Germany to France because of the rise of Nazism, but found it difficult to find work there as a freelance journalist. He adopted the name "Robert Capa" around this time - in fact "cápa" ("shark") was his nickname in school and also he felt that it would be recognizable and American-sounding since it was similar to that of film director Frank Capra. He found it easier to sell his photos under the newly adopted "American" sounding name and over a period of time gradually assumed the persona of Robert Capa (with the help of his current girlfriend, who acted as a intermediary between himself and those who purchased the photos taken by the "great American photographer, Robert Capa". Capa's first published photograph was that of Leon Trotsky making a speech in Copenhagen on "The Meaning of the Russian Revolution" in 1932.[2]
Spanish Civil War and Chinese Resistance to Japan
From 1936 to 1939, he was in Spain, photographing the horrors of the Spanish Civil War, along with Gerda Taro, his companion and professional photography partner, and David Seymour.[3] In 1938, he traveled to the Chinese city of Hankow, now called Wuhan, to document the resistance to the Japanese invasion.[4]In 1936, he became known across the globe for a photo (known as the "Falling Soldier" photo) long falsely presumed to have been taken in Cerro Muriano on the Cordoba Front of a Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) Militiaman[2] who had just been shot and was in the act of falling to his death. There has been a long controversy about the authenticity of this photograph. A Spanish historian identified the dead soldier as Federico Borrell García, from Alcoi (Alicante). This identification has been disputed.[5][6] In 2003, the Spanish newspaper El Periodico claimed the photo was taken near the town of Espejo, 10 km from Cerro Muriano, and that the photo was staged.[7][8] In 2009, a Spanish professor published a book titled Shadows of Photography, in which he showed that the photograph could not have been taken where, when, or how Capa and his backers have alleged.[9]
Many of Capa's photographs of the Spanish Civil War were, for many decades, presumed lost, but surfaced in Mexico City in the late 1990s.[10] While fleeing Europe in 1939, Capa had lost the collection, which over time came to be dubbed the "Mexican suitcase".[10] Ownership of the collection was transferred to the Capa Estate, and in December 2007 was moved to the International Center of Photography, a museum founded by Capa's younger brother Cornell in Manhattan.[10][11]
World War II
At the start of World War II, Capa was in New York City. He had moved there from Paris to look for new work and to escape Nazi persecution. The war took Capa to various parts of the European Theatre on photography assignments. He first photographed for Collier's Weekly, before switching to Life after he was fired by the former. He was the only "enemy alien" photographer for the Allies. On July and on August Capa was in Sicily with American soldiers. He took several photos near Sperlinga, Nicosia and Troina. The Americans were marching toward Troina, a strategically located town which controlled the road to Messina (Sicily's main port to the mainland). The town was being fiercely defended by the Germans, in an attempt to evacuate all German troops. August 4-5th, 1943. Robert Capa's pictures show Sicilian population's suffering under German bombing and happiness when American soldiers arrive. The most important photos of this moment is that where a Sicilian peasant indicating which way the German troops had gone near Sperlinga. On October 7, 1943, Robert Capa was in Naples with Life reporter Will Lang Jr. and photographed the Naples post office bombing.[12]Omaha beach
His most famous work occurred on June 6, 1944 (D-Day) when he swam ashore with the second assault wave on Omaha Beach. He was armed with two Contax II cameras mounted with 50 mm lenses and several rolls of spare film. Capa took 106 pictures in the first couple of hours of the invasion. However, a staff member at Life in London made a mistake in the darkroom; he set the dryer too high and melted the emulsion in the negatives in three complete rolls and over half of a fourth roll. Only eleven frames in total were recovered.[13][14] Capa never said a word to the London bureau chief about the loss of three and a half rolls of his D-Day landing film.[15]Although a fifteen-year-old lab assistant named Dennis Banks was responsible for the accident, another account, now largely accepted as untrue but that gained widespread currency, blamed Larry Burrows, who worked in the lab not as a technician but as a "tea-boy".[16] Life magazine printed some of the frames in its June 19, 1944 issue with captions that described the footage as "slightly out of focus", explaining that Capa's hands were shaking in the excitement of the moment (something that he denied).[17] Capa used this phrase as the title of his autobiographical account of the war, Slightly Out of Focus.
In 1947 Capa traveled into the Soviet Union with his friend, writer John Steinbeck. He took photos in Moscow, Kiev, Tbilisi, Batumi and among the ruins of Stalingrad. The humorous reportage of Steinbeck, A Russian Journal, was illustrated with Capa's photos. It was first published in 1948.
In 1947, Capa founded the cooperative venture Magnum Photos with Henri Cartier-Bresson, William Vandivert, David Seymour, and George Rodger. In 1951, he became the president.
Capa toured Israel after its founding, and supplied the copious photographs for a book on the new nation written by Irwin Shaw, Report on Israel.
First Indochina War and death
In the early 1950s, Capa traveled to Japan for an exhibition associated with Magnum Photos. While there, Life magazine asked him to go on assignment to Southeast Asia, where the French had been fighting for eight years in the First Indochina War. Despite the fact he had sworn not to photograph another war a few years earlier, Capa accepted and accompanied a French regiment with two other Time-Life journalists, John Mecklin and Jim Lucas. On May 25, 1954 at 2:55 p.m., the regiment was passing through a dangerous area under fire when Capa decided to leave his Jeep and go up the road to photograph the advance. About five minutes later, Mecklin and Lucas heard an explosion; Capa had stepped on a landmine. When they arrived on the scene, he was still alive but his left leg had been blown to pieces, and he had a serious wound in his chest. Mecklin called for a medic and Capa was taken to a small field hospital where he was pronounced dead on arrival. He died with his camera in his hand.[citation needed]Personal life
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In February 1943 Capa met Elaine Justin, the beautiful young wife of actor John Justin. They immediately fell in love and the relationship lasted until the end of the war, although Capa spent most of his time in the frontline. Capa lovingly called the redheaded Elaine "Pinky," and their romance became the topic of his war memoir, Slightly Out of Focus. In 1945, Elaine broke up with Capa and married her friend, Chuck Romine.
Some months later Capa became the lover of actress Ingrid Bergman, who was travelling in Europe at the time entertaining American soldiers. In December 1945, Capa followed her to Hollywood, where he worked for American International Pictures for a short time. Bergman tried to persuade him to marry her, but Capa didn't want to live in Hollywood. The relationship ended in the summer of 1946 when Capa traveled to Turkey.
Legacy
Capa's younger brother, Cornell Capa, also a photographer, worked to preserve and promote Robert's legacy as well as develop his own identity and style.In order to preserve the photographic heritage of Capa and other photographers, Cornell founded the International Fund for Concerned Photography in 1966. To give this collection a permanent home he founded the International Center of Photography in New York City in 1974.
The Overseas Press Club created an award in his honor, the Robert Capa Gold Medal. It is given annually to the photographer who provides the "best published photographic reporting from abroad, requiring exceptional courage and enterprise".[18]
Capa is known for redefining wartime photojournalism. His work came literally from the trenches as opposed to the more arms-length perspective that was the precedent previously. He was famed for saying, "If your picture isn't good enough, you're not close enough."
Capa is credited with coining the term Generation X. He used it as a title for a photo-essay about young men and women growing up immediately after the Second World War. The project first appeared in Picture Post (UK) and Holiday (USA) in 1953. Describing his intention, Capa said "We named this unknown generation, The Generation X, and even in our first enthusiasm we realised that we had something far bigger than our talents and pockets could cope with." [19]
In 1995, thousands of negatives to photographs that Capa took during the Spanish Civil War were found in three suitcases bequeathed to a Mexico City filmmaker from his aunt. In 1939, after Capa fled Europe for America during World War II, these negatives were left behind in a Paris darkroom and they were assumed lost during the Nazi invasion of Paris. It is not known how the negatives traveled to Mexico, but apparently Capa asked his darkroom manager, a Hungarian photographer Imre Weisz, to save his negatives during 1939 and 1940. Jerald R Green, a professor at Queens College, was informed by a letter from the Mexican film-maker about this discovery. In January 2008, the negatives transferred to the Capa estate, but the Mexican film-maker has asked to remain anonymous.[20]
The International Center of Photography organized a travelling exhibition titled This Is War: Robert Capa at Work, which reexamines Capa's innovations as a photojournalist in the 1930s and 1940s with vintage prints, contact sheets, caption sheets, handwritten observations, personal letters and original magazine layouts from the Spanish Civil War, the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. The exhibition has been on display at the Barbican Art Gallery and the International Center of Photography of Milan and was on display at the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya until September 27, 2009. It then moved to the Nederlands Fotomuseum from October 10, 2009 until January 10, 2010.[21]
Politics
As a teenager, Capa was drawn to the Munkakör (Work Circle), a group of socialist and avant-garde artists, photographers, and intellectuals centered around Budapest and he was a regular participant in the demonstrations against the repressive regime of Miklós Horthy. In 1931, just before his first photo would be published, Capa was arrested by the Hungarian secret police, beaten, and jailed for his radical political activity; a police official’s wife—who happened to know his family—won Capa’s release on the condition that he would leave Hungary immediately.[2]The Boston Review described Capa as "a leftist, and a democrat—he was passionately pro-Loyalist and passionately anti-fascist ..." During the Spanish Civil War Capa travelled with and photographed the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), under which George Orwell served, which resulted in his best-known photograph.[2]
The British magazine Picture Post ran his photos from Spain accompanied by a portrait of Capa, in profile, with the simple description: "He is a passionate democrat, and he lives to take photographs."[2]
Realidade Aumentada (RA) é a integração de informações virtuais a visualizações do mundo real (como, por exemplo, através de uma câmera). Atualmente, a maior parte das pesquisas em RA está ligada ao uso de vídeos transmitidos ao vivo, que são digitalmente processados e “ampliados” pela adição de gráficos criados pelo computador. Pesquisas avançadas incluem uso de rastreamento de dados em movimento, reconhecimento de marcadores confiáveis utilizando mecanismos de visão, e a construção de ambientes controlados contendo qualquer número de sensores e atuadores.
A definição de Ronald Azuma sobre a Realidade Aumentada é a descrição melhor aceita. Ela ignora um subconjunto do objetivo inicial da RA, porém é entendida como uma representação de todo o domínio da RA: Realidade Aumentada é um ambiente que envolve tanto realidade virtual como elementos do mundo real, criando um ambiente misto em tempo real. Por exemplo, um usuário da RA pode utilizar óculos translúcidos, e através destes, ele poderia ver o mundo real, bem como imagens geradas por computador projetadas no mundo.
Azuma define a Realidade Aumentada como um sistema que:
combina elementos virtuais com o ambiente real;
é interativa e tem processamento em tempo real;
é concebida em três dimensões.
Atualmente, esta definição é geralmente utilizada em algumas partes da literatura da pesquisa em RA (Azuma, 1997). Já existem vários sistemas de manipulação da Realidade Aumentada, disponiveis gratuitamente. Existem aplicações educacionais, jogos e aplicações de Realidade nas mais variadas áreas, como: bioengenharia, física, geologia.
Descrever a história da Realidade Aumentada é também descrever a jornada e os “acréscimos” do homem ao mundo no qual ele vive.
15000 A.C.: Os desenhos em cavernas em Lascaux mostravam imagens “virtuais” na escuridão da caverna, que iniciaram a idéia de aprimoramento do mundo real.
1849: Richard Wagner inicia a idéia das experiências em imersão utilizando um teatro escuro e envolvendo o público com imagens e sons.
1938: Konrad Zuse inventa o primeiro computador digital, conhecido como o Z1.
1948: Norbert Wiener cria a ciência conhecida como “cibernética”, transmitindo mensagens entre homem e máquina.
1962: Morton Heilig cria um simulador de motocicleta chamado de Sensorama, com efeitos visuais, sonoros, vibrações e cheiros.
1966: Ivan Sutherland inventa capacetes para exibição de imagens, sugerindo uma janela para um mundo virtual.
1975: Myron Krueger cria um laboratório de realidade virtual chamado “Videoplace”, que permite o usuário interagir com elementos virtuais pela primeira vez.
1989: Jaron Lanier inventa o termo “Realidade Virtual” e cria o primeiro comercial em torno de mundos virtuais.
1990: Tom Caudell cunha o termo “Realidade Ampliada”, enquanto estava na Boeing, enquanto ajudava trabalhadores a montar cabos em aeronaves.
1997: MTecna pensa num sistema a Imersão Ambiente onde o jogador poderia aproveitar o ambiente real e misturá-lo ao universo de efeitos dos jogos, inserindo por exemplo uma batalha em meio a edifícios e ruas utilizando um óculos translúcidos ou câmera e uma tv, a idéia de um video game portátil com câmeras começou a ser desenvolvida a partir desta idéia anos mais tarde, devido apenas a limites tecnológicos.
O Conceito de Inteligência Expandida também se tornava viável com a utilização de outra ferramenta proposta que se tornou realidade a RDFI (Etiquetas Inteligentes), onde seria possível colher todas as informações processadas do ambiente e até monitorá-las não apenas um scanner como no filme Exterminador do Futuro.
RA como uma tecnologia de transformação
Para muitos daqueles interessados em Realidade Ampliada, uma das suas mais importantes características é a maneira a qual faz possível a transformação do foco de interação. O sistema de interação já não é uma localização precisa, mas sim o ambiente como um todo; interação não mais é uma simples troca “face-monitor”, agora se dissolve no espaço e objetos em volta. Utilizar um sistema de informação não é mais exclusivamente um ato consciente e intencional.
RA em ambientes amplos e abertos
Uma nova e maior área das atuais pesquisas gira em torno da Realidade Ampliada fora de ambientes fechados. GPS e sensores de orientação permitem sistemas de computação levarem a RA para ambientes mais amplos e abertos.
Os primeiros sistemas foram desenvolvidos por Steven Feiner na Universidade de Columbia (Sistema MARS), e Bruce H. Thomas e Wayne Piekarski na Universidade da Austrália do Sul (Sistema ARQuake e Tinmith).
Trimble Navigation, um provedor de equipamento e soluções de posicionamento avançados, vem pesquisando a RA em ambientes abertos em colaboração o Human Interface Technology Laboratory.
Atualmente a BMW utiliza óculos dotados de acelerômetros de 2 eixos e Softwares em RA para manutenção de seus automóveis, com isso os mecânicos conseguem vislumbrar a manutenção e as ferramentas a serem utilizadas em cada etapa da manutenção.[3]
Realidade Aumentada Móvel
A RA móvel é uma combinação da RA com tecnologia móvel da computação em aparelhos celulares dotados de conexão online. Quando a câmera do aparelho celular é direcionada a um objeto com logos ou formas reconhecidos por RA, tais elementos são substituídos por gráficos 3D enquanto todo o resto do mundo real permanece igual.
São proponentes da pesquisa dessa tecnologia a Universidade de Canterbury e o Georgia Institute of Technology. • Atualmente a BMW utiliza óculos dotados de acelerômetros de 2 eixos e Softwares em RA para manutenção de seus automóveis, com isso os mecânicos conseguem vislumbrar a manutenção e as ferramentas a serem utilizadas em cada etapa da manutenção
Computação Ubíqua
A RA tem claras conexões com a Computação Ubíqua (Ubiquitous Computing - Ubicomp) e os domínios dos “computadores trajáveis” (acessórios corporais). Mark Weiser determinou que a “virtualidade incorporada”, o termo original utilizado por ele antes que cunhasse o conceito de Ubicomp, tentava expressar o exato oposto para o conceito de realidade virtual (Mark Weiser's personal communication, Boston, March 1993). A distinção mais notável a ser feita entre a RA e a Ubicomp é que esta não foca no desaparecimento da interação consciente e intencional com um sistema de informação tanto quanto a RA foca. Sistemas de Ubicomp, tais como dispositivos difusos da computação, geralmente mantém a noção da interação explícita e intencional, a qual geralmente se embaraça num típico trabalho da RA como o de Ronald Azuma. A teoria da Inteligência Humanística (IH), entretanto, também questiona esta noção semiótica do significador e significado.
Em particular, a IH é a inteligência que se origina do ser humano em um ciclo de retroalimentação de um processo computacional no qual o homem é inextricavelmente entrelaçado, e não necessariamente requer um pensamento consciente ou esforço. Desta maneira, a Inteligência Humanística, que nasce da realidade mediada por computadores trajáveis, tem muito a ver com a Realidade Aumentada.
Pesquisadores notáveis
Steven Feiner é tido como um pioneiro das pesquisas em RA e autor do primeiro artigo sobre o tema.
Bruce H. Thomas é atualmente o diretor do Wearable Computer Laboratory na Universidade da Austrália do Sul, membro do time Hxl e participa no Human Interaction Technology Laboratory. Ele é o inventor do primeiro jogo de RA em ambientes amplos e abertos, conhecido como ARQuake. Suas pesquisas atuais estão no incluem os campos dos “computadores trajáveis”, interfaces de usuário, RA, realidade virtual, Trabalho Cooperativo Suportado por Computadores e interfaces expostas sobre superfícies, tais como mesas.
Wayne Piekarski foi o inventor do Sistema Tinmith.
Exemplos
Exemplos comuns da RA vistos hoje em dia são a linha amarela de “first down” vista nas transmissões de futebol americano, e o rastro colorido que indica a localização e direção do puck (duende) em transmissões de jogos de hockey. Os elementos do mundo real são o campo de futebol e os jogadores, e o elementos virtual é a linha amarela, a qual é desenhada sobre a imagem em tempo real através do uso de computadores. De maneira similar, campos de rugby e cricket marcados com os logos de seus patrocinadores auxiliados por RA.
Um outro tipo de aplicação da RA utiliza projetores e telas para inserir objetos em um ambiente real, aperfeiçoando exibições em museus, por exemplo. A diferença entre uma simples tela de TV, é que estes objetos estão relacionados ao ambiente da tela ou mostrador, e que eles também são geralmente interativos.
Muitos dos jogos de tiro em primeira pessoa simulam a visão de um determinado sujeito através de sistema de RA. Nestes casos, a Realidade Aumentada pode ser utilizada para dar direções visuais para um determinado local, marcar a direção ou distância de um outro sujeito que não está no campo de visão, dar informações sobre equipamentos, tais como a munição restante numa arma, e exibir uma incontável quantidade de imagens baseadas no foco dos game designers.
A realidade aumentada ficou mais perto do público quando passou a ser veiculada em peças publicitárias. Entre as montadoras, a Mini foi a pioneira a usar essa tecnologia. Em uma peça em uma revista alemã havia um símbolo que direcionado para a webcam projeta um modelo do Mini-Cooper em 3D na tela. Este símbolo pode ser impresso [1] e visualizado no site da Mini.[2]
No Brasil, a Chevrolet lançou um hotsite para a nova campanha do Vectra GT , onde o visitante pode dirigir um modelo do automóvel através dos movimentos da revista, na qual veio impresso um volante e uma chamada para o site. Seguindo o mesmo princípio do anuncio do Mini, o anúncio é direcionado para a webcam, o aplicativo no hotsite reconhece o QR code e o carro será direcionado para esquerda e direita, como se a revista fosse o volante.
A maior parte das aplicações da RA, entretanto, necessitarão óculos de exibição pessoais. Em algumas aplicações, como em carros ou aeronaves, estes aparelhos de exibição são geralmente integrados com o visor protetor em capacetes. O uso de óculos também será necessário nesse projeto da BMW para o treinamento de mecânicos. Ao colocar os óculos, o mecânico verá a explicação de como arrumar as peças ou eventuais problemas do carro.
Aplicações atuais
Apoio a tarefas complexas em cirurgias, montagem e manutenção:
inserindo informações adicionais no campo de visão, como tabelas, legendas informativas ou instruções durante um procedimento; visualizando objetos “escondidos”, como um Raio-X virtual, baseado em tomografia ou imagens oriundas de ultra-som em tempo real.
Dispositivos de navegação:
em construções, como na manutenção de plantas industriais; em ambientes abertos, como em operações militares ou em desastres; em carros ou aeronaves, através de visores dotados de RA integrados ao capacete do usuário.
Serviços militares ou de emergência, como sistemas trajáveis, instruções, mapas e informações de inimigos ou feridos.
Prospecção em hidrologia, ecologia ou geologia, mostrando informações específicas sobre o terreno ou mapas tridimensionais.
Visitação aprimorada, legendas ou textos históricos referentes a objetos ou locais vistos, ruínas ou paisagens reconstruídas (dados que, se combinados a uma conexão à internet sem fio, proporcionam uma vasta quantidade de informações).
Simulação, tal como de vôo ou de mergulho.
Colaboração de times distribuídos (à distância):
conferências com participantes reais e virtuais; trabalho conjunto em modelos 3D simulados.
Entretenimento e educação:
objetos virtuais em museus e exibições; atrações temáticas em parques, como por exemplo, o Cadbury World; jogos, tais como ARQuake e The Eye of Judgment.
Aplicações futuras
Expansão de telas de computador para um ambiente real: janelas de programas e ícones se tornam dispositivos virtuais num espaço real e podem ser operados por gestos ou pelo olho. Um único mostrador pessoal (como óculos), poderia simular uma centena de monitores convencionais de computador ou janelas de aplicação ao redor do usuário concomitantemente.
Dispositivos virtuais de todos os tipos: substituição das telas e monitores tradicionais, painéis de controle, e aplicações completamente novas (algo impossível em um hardware “real”), como objetos 3D que alteram suas formas e aparências de forma interativa baseados na tarefa ou necessidade atual do usuário.
Aplicações de media aprimoradas, como telas virtuais pseudo-holográficas, cinema surround virtual, “holodecks” (como em Star Trek), permitindo imagens criadas por computadores interagir com sujeitos reais e platéias.
Conferências virtuais.
Substituição de telas de navegação em carros e aparelhos celulares: discagem através do movimento dos olhos, inserção de informação diretamente no ambiente, como linhas guia diretamente na pista bem como aprimoramentos como vistas em Raio-X.
Plantas virtuais, papéis de parede, vistas panorâmicas, decorações, trabalhos artísticos e iluminação, melhorando a vida cotidiana. Por exemplo, uma janela virtual poderia ser disposta em uma parede comum, mostrando a tomada de uma câmera situada no exterior da construção.
Com uma entrada de sistemas de RA no mercado de massas, poderemos ver janelas virtuais, posters, sinais de trânsito, decorações natalinas, torres de publicidade e muito mais. Tais elementos devem ser completamente interativos, mesmo à distância, como por um “apontar dos olhos”, por exemplo.
Dispositivos e aparelhos virtuais se tornam possíveis. Qualquer aparelho físico produzido para auxiliar em tarefas orientadas por dados (como relógios, computadores e aparelhos de som, outdoors eletrônicos), poderiam ser alteradas por dispositivos virtuais que não custariam nada para serem produzidos exceto pelo custo de produção do software. Um relógio de parede virtual ou uma lista de coisas a serem feitas no seu dia “projetada” na cabeceira da sua cama são simples exemplos.
Alimentação de grupos específicos de RA “inseríveis”, como um gerente num site de construção que poderia criar e alocar instruções específicas incluindo diagramas de localização no site. Os trabalhadores poderiam ter acesso a estas “alimentações de dados” de elementos de RA enquanto trabalham. Outro exemplo poderia ser patrocinadores, num evento público, inserindo dados de orientação e informação orientados por RA.
Aplicações específicas
LifeClipper, um sistema de RA trajável.
Characteroke, uma espécie de traje portátil de RA para exibição de informações, por meio do qual o pescoço e cabeça estão ocultados por um fino painel ativo.
MARISIL, um telefone centrado em interface do usuário baseado em RA.
CyberCode, um sistema de etiquetagem virtual no qual objetos no mundo real são reconhecidos por um computador.
A definição de Ronald Azuma sobre a Realidade Aumentada é a descrição melhor aceita. Ela ignora um subconjunto do objetivo inicial da RA, porém é entendida como uma representação de todo o domínio da RA: Realidade Aumentada é um ambiente que envolve tanto realidade virtual como elementos do mundo real, criando um ambiente misto em tempo real. Por exemplo, um usuário da RA pode utilizar óculos translúcidos, e através destes, ele poderia ver o mundo real, bem como imagens geradas por computador projetadas no mundo.
Azuma define a Realidade Aumentada como um sistema que:
combina elementos virtuais com o ambiente real;
é interativa e tem processamento em tempo real;
é concebida em três dimensões.
Atualmente, esta definição é geralmente utilizada em algumas partes da literatura da pesquisa em RA (Azuma, 1997). Já existem vários sistemas de manipulação da Realidade Aumentada, disponiveis gratuitamente. Existem aplicações educacionais, jogos e aplicações de Realidade nas mais variadas áreas, como: bioengenharia, física, geologia.
Descrever a história da Realidade Aumentada é também descrever a jornada e os “acréscimos” do homem ao mundo no qual ele vive.
15000 A.C.: Os desenhos em cavernas em Lascaux mostravam imagens “virtuais” na escuridão da caverna, que iniciaram a idéia de aprimoramento do mundo real.
1849: Richard Wagner inicia a idéia das experiências em imersão utilizando um teatro escuro e envolvendo o público com imagens e sons.
1938: Konrad Zuse inventa o primeiro computador digital, conhecido como o Z1.
1948: Norbert Wiener cria a ciência conhecida como “cibernética”, transmitindo mensagens entre homem e máquina.
1962: Morton Heilig cria um simulador de motocicleta chamado de Sensorama, com efeitos visuais, sonoros, vibrações e cheiros.
1966: Ivan Sutherland inventa capacetes para exibição de imagens, sugerindo uma janela para um mundo virtual.
1975: Myron Krueger cria um laboratório de realidade virtual chamado “Videoplace”, que permite o usuário interagir com elementos virtuais pela primeira vez.
1989: Jaron Lanier inventa o termo “Realidade Virtual” e cria o primeiro comercial em torno de mundos virtuais.
1990: Tom Caudell cunha o termo “Realidade Ampliada”, enquanto estava na Boeing, enquanto ajudava trabalhadores a montar cabos em aeronaves.
1997: MTecna pensa num sistema a Imersão Ambiente onde o jogador poderia aproveitar o ambiente real e misturá-lo ao universo de efeitos dos jogos, inserindo por exemplo uma batalha em meio a edifícios e ruas utilizando um óculos translúcidos ou câmera e uma tv, a idéia de um video game portátil com câmeras começou a ser desenvolvida a partir desta idéia anos mais tarde, devido apenas a limites tecnológicos.
O Conceito de Inteligência Expandida também se tornava viável com a utilização de outra ferramenta proposta que se tornou realidade a RDFI (Etiquetas Inteligentes), onde seria possível colher todas as informações processadas do ambiente e até monitorá-las não apenas um scanner como no filme Exterminador do Futuro.
RA como uma tecnologia de transformação
Para muitos daqueles interessados em Realidade Ampliada, uma das suas mais importantes características é a maneira a qual faz possível a transformação do foco de interação. O sistema de interação já não é uma localização precisa, mas sim o ambiente como um todo; interação não mais é uma simples troca “face-monitor”, agora se dissolve no espaço e objetos em volta. Utilizar um sistema de informação não é mais exclusivamente um ato consciente e intencional.
RA em ambientes amplos e abertos
Uma nova e maior área das atuais pesquisas gira em torno da Realidade Ampliada fora de ambientes fechados. GPS e sensores de orientação permitem sistemas de computação levarem a RA para ambientes mais amplos e abertos.
Os primeiros sistemas foram desenvolvidos por Steven Feiner na Universidade de Columbia (Sistema MARS), e Bruce H. Thomas e Wayne Piekarski na Universidade da Austrália do Sul (Sistema ARQuake e Tinmith).
Trimble Navigation, um provedor de equipamento e soluções de posicionamento avançados, vem pesquisando a RA em ambientes abertos em colaboração o Human Interface Technology Laboratory.
Atualmente a BMW utiliza óculos dotados de acelerômetros de 2 eixos e Softwares em RA para manutenção de seus automóveis, com isso os mecânicos conseguem vislumbrar a manutenção e as ferramentas a serem utilizadas em cada etapa da manutenção.[3]
Realidade Aumentada Móvel
A RA móvel é uma combinação da RA com tecnologia móvel da computação em aparelhos celulares dotados de conexão online. Quando a câmera do aparelho celular é direcionada a um objeto com logos ou formas reconhecidos por RA, tais elementos são substituídos por gráficos 3D enquanto todo o resto do mundo real permanece igual.
São proponentes da pesquisa dessa tecnologia a Universidade de Canterbury e o Georgia Institute of Technology. • Atualmente a BMW utiliza óculos dotados de acelerômetros de 2 eixos e Softwares em RA para manutenção de seus automóveis, com isso os mecânicos conseguem vislumbrar a manutenção e as ferramentas a serem utilizadas em cada etapa da manutenção
Computação Ubíqua
A RA tem claras conexões com a Computação Ubíqua (Ubiquitous Computing - Ubicomp) e os domínios dos “computadores trajáveis” (acessórios corporais). Mark Weiser determinou que a “virtualidade incorporada”, o termo original utilizado por ele antes que cunhasse o conceito de Ubicomp, tentava expressar o exato oposto para o conceito de realidade virtual (Mark Weiser's personal communication, Boston, March 1993). A distinção mais notável a ser feita entre a RA e a Ubicomp é que esta não foca no desaparecimento da interação consciente e intencional com um sistema de informação tanto quanto a RA foca. Sistemas de Ubicomp, tais como dispositivos difusos da computação, geralmente mantém a noção da interação explícita e intencional, a qual geralmente se embaraça num típico trabalho da RA como o de Ronald Azuma. A teoria da Inteligência Humanística (IH), entretanto, também questiona esta noção semiótica do significador e significado.
Em particular, a IH é a inteligência que se origina do ser humano em um ciclo de retroalimentação de um processo computacional no qual o homem é inextricavelmente entrelaçado, e não necessariamente requer um pensamento consciente ou esforço. Desta maneira, a Inteligência Humanística, que nasce da realidade mediada por computadores trajáveis, tem muito a ver com a Realidade Aumentada.
Pesquisadores notáveis
Steven Feiner é tido como um pioneiro das pesquisas em RA e autor do primeiro artigo sobre o tema.
Bruce H. Thomas é atualmente o diretor do Wearable Computer Laboratory na Universidade da Austrália do Sul, membro do time Hxl e participa no Human Interaction Technology Laboratory. Ele é o inventor do primeiro jogo de RA em ambientes amplos e abertos, conhecido como ARQuake. Suas pesquisas atuais estão no incluem os campos dos “computadores trajáveis”, interfaces de usuário, RA, realidade virtual, Trabalho Cooperativo Suportado por Computadores e interfaces expostas sobre superfícies, tais como mesas.
Wayne Piekarski foi o inventor do Sistema Tinmith.
Exemplos
Exemplos comuns da RA vistos hoje em dia são a linha amarela de “first down” vista nas transmissões de futebol americano, e o rastro colorido que indica a localização e direção do puck (duende) em transmissões de jogos de hockey. Os elementos do mundo real são o campo de futebol e os jogadores, e o elementos virtual é a linha amarela, a qual é desenhada sobre a imagem em tempo real através do uso de computadores. De maneira similar, campos de rugby e cricket marcados com os logos de seus patrocinadores auxiliados por RA.
Um outro tipo de aplicação da RA utiliza projetores e telas para inserir objetos em um ambiente real, aperfeiçoando exibições em museus, por exemplo. A diferença entre uma simples tela de TV, é que estes objetos estão relacionados ao ambiente da tela ou mostrador, e que eles também são geralmente interativos.
Muitos dos jogos de tiro em primeira pessoa simulam a visão de um determinado sujeito através de sistema de RA. Nestes casos, a Realidade Aumentada pode ser utilizada para dar direções visuais para um determinado local, marcar a direção ou distância de um outro sujeito que não está no campo de visão, dar informações sobre equipamentos, tais como a munição restante numa arma, e exibir uma incontável quantidade de imagens baseadas no foco dos game designers.
A realidade aumentada ficou mais perto do público quando passou a ser veiculada em peças publicitárias. Entre as montadoras, a Mini foi a pioneira a usar essa tecnologia. Em uma peça em uma revista alemã havia um símbolo que direcionado para a webcam projeta um modelo do Mini-Cooper em 3D na tela. Este símbolo pode ser impresso [1] e visualizado no site da Mini.[2]
No Brasil, a Chevrolet lançou um hotsite para a nova campanha do Vectra GT , onde o visitante pode dirigir um modelo do automóvel através dos movimentos da revista, na qual veio impresso um volante e uma chamada para o site. Seguindo o mesmo princípio do anuncio do Mini, o anúncio é direcionado para a webcam, o aplicativo no hotsite reconhece o QR code e o carro será direcionado para esquerda e direita, como se a revista fosse o volante.
A maior parte das aplicações da RA, entretanto, necessitarão óculos de exibição pessoais. Em algumas aplicações, como em carros ou aeronaves, estes aparelhos de exibição são geralmente integrados com o visor protetor em capacetes. O uso de óculos também será necessário nesse projeto da BMW para o treinamento de mecânicos. Ao colocar os óculos, o mecânico verá a explicação de como arrumar as peças ou eventuais problemas do carro.
Aplicações atuais
Apoio a tarefas complexas em cirurgias, montagem e manutenção:
inserindo informações adicionais no campo de visão, como tabelas, legendas informativas ou instruções durante um procedimento; visualizando objetos “escondidos”, como um Raio-X virtual, baseado em tomografia ou imagens oriundas de ultra-som em tempo real.
Dispositivos de navegação:
em construções, como na manutenção de plantas industriais; em ambientes abertos, como em operações militares ou em desastres; em carros ou aeronaves, através de visores dotados de RA integrados ao capacete do usuário.
Serviços militares ou de emergência, como sistemas trajáveis, instruções, mapas e informações de inimigos ou feridos.
Prospecção em hidrologia, ecologia ou geologia, mostrando informações específicas sobre o terreno ou mapas tridimensionais.
Visitação aprimorada, legendas ou textos históricos referentes a objetos ou locais vistos, ruínas ou paisagens reconstruídas (dados que, se combinados a uma conexão à internet sem fio, proporcionam uma vasta quantidade de informações).
Simulação, tal como de vôo ou de mergulho.
Colaboração de times distribuídos (à distância):
conferências com participantes reais e virtuais; trabalho conjunto em modelos 3D simulados.
Entretenimento e educação:
objetos virtuais em museus e exibições; atrações temáticas em parques, como por exemplo, o Cadbury World; jogos, tais como ARQuake e The Eye of Judgment.
Aplicações futuras
Expansão de telas de computador para um ambiente real: janelas de programas e ícones se tornam dispositivos virtuais num espaço real e podem ser operados por gestos ou pelo olho. Um único mostrador pessoal (como óculos), poderia simular uma centena de monitores convencionais de computador ou janelas de aplicação ao redor do usuário concomitantemente.
Dispositivos virtuais de todos os tipos: substituição das telas e monitores tradicionais, painéis de controle, e aplicações completamente novas (algo impossível em um hardware “real”), como objetos 3D que alteram suas formas e aparências de forma interativa baseados na tarefa ou necessidade atual do usuário.
Aplicações de media aprimoradas, como telas virtuais pseudo-holográficas, cinema surround virtual, “holodecks” (como em Star Trek), permitindo imagens criadas por computadores interagir com sujeitos reais e platéias.
Conferências virtuais.
Substituição de telas de navegação em carros e aparelhos celulares: discagem através do movimento dos olhos, inserção de informação diretamente no ambiente, como linhas guia diretamente na pista bem como aprimoramentos como vistas em Raio-X.
Plantas virtuais, papéis de parede, vistas panorâmicas, decorações, trabalhos artísticos e iluminação, melhorando a vida cotidiana. Por exemplo, uma janela virtual poderia ser disposta em uma parede comum, mostrando a tomada de uma câmera situada no exterior da construção.
Com uma entrada de sistemas de RA no mercado de massas, poderemos ver janelas virtuais, posters, sinais de trânsito, decorações natalinas, torres de publicidade e muito mais. Tais elementos devem ser completamente interativos, mesmo à distância, como por um “apontar dos olhos”, por exemplo.
Dispositivos e aparelhos virtuais se tornam possíveis. Qualquer aparelho físico produzido para auxiliar em tarefas orientadas por dados (como relógios, computadores e aparelhos de som, outdoors eletrônicos), poderiam ser alteradas por dispositivos virtuais que não custariam nada para serem produzidos exceto pelo custo de produção do software. Um relógio de parede virtual ou uma lista de coisas a serem feitas no seu dia “projetada” na cabeceira da sua cama são simples exemplos.
Alimentação de grupos específicos de RA “inseríveis”, como um gerente num site de construção que poderia criar e alocar instruções específicas incluindo diagramas de localização no site. Os trabalhadores poderiam ter acesso a estas “alimentações de dados” de elementos de RA enquanto trabalham. Outro exemplo poderia ser patrocinadores, num evento público, inserindo dados de orientação e informação orientados por RA.
Aplicações específicas
LifeClipper, um sistema de RA trajável.
Characteroke, uma espécie de traje portátil de RA para exibição de informações, por meio do qual o pescoço e cabeça estão ocultados por um fino painel ativo.
MARISIL, um telefone centrado em interface do usuário baseado em RA.
CyberCode, um sistema de etiquetagem virtual no qual objetos no mundo real são reconhecidos por um computador.
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