In physics, a unified field theory (UFT), occasionally referred to as a uniform field theory,[1] is a type of field theory that allows all that is usually thought of as fundamental forces and elementary particles to be written in terms of a single field. There is no accepted unified field theory, and thus it remains an open line of research. The term was coined by Einstein, who attempted to unify the general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. The "theory of everything" and Grand Unified Theory are closely related to unified field theory, but differ by not requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and often by attempting to explain physical constants of nature.
This article describes unified field theory as it is currently understood in connection with quantum theory. Earlier attempts based on classical physics are described in the article on classical unified field theories.
There may be no a priori reason why the correct description of nature has to be a unified field theory. However, this goal has led to a great deal of progress in modern theoretical physics and continues to motivate research.
According to the current understanding of physics, forces are not transmitted directly between objects, but instead are described by intermediary entities called fields. All four of the known fundamental forces are mediated by fields, which in the Standard Model of particle physics result from exchange of gauge bosons. Specifically the four interactions to be unified are:
Modern unified field theory attempts to bring these four interactions together into a single framework.

History[edit]

The first successful classical unified field theory was developed by James Clerk Maxwell. In 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents exerted forces on magnets, while in 1831, Michael Faraday made the observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents. Until then, electricity and magnetism had been thought of as unrelated phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. This was the first example of a theory that was able to encompass previous separate field theories (namely electricity and magnetism) to provide a unifying theory of electromagnetism. By 1905, Albert Einstein had used the constancy of the speed of light in Maxwell's theory to unify our notions of space and time into an entity we now call spacetime and in 1915 he expanded this theory of special relativity to a description of gravity, General Relativity, using a field to describe the curving geometry of four-dimensional spacetime.
In the years following the creation of the general theory, a large number of physicists and mathematicians enthusiastically participated in the attempt to unify the then-known fundamental interactions.[2] In view of later developments in this domain, of particular interest are the theories of Hermann Weyl of 1919, who introduced the concept of an (electromagnetic) gauge field in a classical field theory[3] and, two years later, that of Theodor Kaluza, who extended General Relativity to five dimensions.[4] Continuing in this latter direction, Oscar Klein proposed in 1926 that the fourth spatial dimension be curled up into a small, unobserved circle. In Kaluza-Klein theory, the gravitational curvature of the extra spatial direction behaves as an additional force similar to electromagnetism. These and other models of electromagnetism and gravity were pursued by Albert Einstein in his attempts at a classical unified field theory. By 1930 Einstein had already considered the Einstein-Maxwell-Dirac System [Dongen]. This system is (heuristically) the super-classical [Varadarajan] limit of (the not mathematically well-defined) Quantum Electrodynamics. One can easily extend this system to include the weak and strong nuclear forces to get the Einstein-Yang-Mills-Dirac System.

Modern progress[edit]

In 1963 American physicist Sheldon Glashow proposed that the weak nuclear force and electricity and magnetism could arise from a partially unified electroweak theory. In 1967, Pakistani Abdus Salam and American Steven Weinbergindependently revised Glashow's theory by having the masses for the W particle and Z particle arise through spontaneous symmetry breaking with the Higgs mechanism. This unified theory was governed by the exchange of four particles: the photon for electromagnetic interactions, a neutral Z particle and two charged W particles for weak interaction. As a result of the spontaneous symmetry breaking, the weak force becomes short range and the Z and W bosons acquire masses of 80.4 and 91.2 GeV/c^2, respectively. Their theory was first given experimental support by the discovery of weak neutral currents in 1973. In 1983, the Z and W bosons were first produced at CERN by Carlo Rubbia's team. For their insights, Salam, Glashow and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer received the Prize in 1984.
After Gerardus 't Hooft showed the Glashow-Weinberg-Salam electroweak interactions was mathematically consistent, the electroweak theory became a template for further attempts at unifying forces. In 1974, Sheldon Glashow andHoward Georgi proposed unifying the strong and electroweak interactions into Georgi-Glashow model, the first Grand Unified Theory, which would have observable effects for energies much above 100 GeV.
Since then there have been several proposals for Grand Unified Theories, e.g. the Pati-Salam model, although none is currently universally accepted. A major problem for experimental tests of such theories is the energy scale involved, which is well beyond the reach of current accelerators. Grand Unified Theories make predictions for the relative strengths of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces, and in 1991 LEP determined that supersymmetric theories have the correct ratio of couplings for a Georgi-Glashow Grand Unified Theory. Many Grand Unified Theories (but not Pati-Salam) predict that the proton can decay, and if this were to be seen, details of the decay products could give hints at more aspects of the Grand Unified Theory. It is at present unknown if the proton can decay, although experiments have determined a lower bound of 1035 years for its lifetime.

Current status[edit]

Gravity has yet to be successfully included in a theory of everything. Simply trying to combine the graviton with the strong and electroweak interactions runs into fundamental difficulties since the resulting theory is not renormalizable. Theoretical physicists have not yet formulated a widely accepted, consistent theory that combines general relativity and quantum mechanics. The incompatibility of the two theories remains an outstanding problem in the field of physics. Some theoretical physicists currently believe that a quantum theory of general relativity may require frameworks other than field theory itself, such as string theory or loop quantum gravity. Some models in string theory that are promising by way of realizing our familiar standard model are the perturbative heterotic string models, 11-dimensional M-theory, Singular geometries (e.g. orbifold and orientifold), D-branes and other branes, flux compactification and warped geometry, non-perturbative type IIB superstring solutions (F-theory).[5]
Pashtunwali (Pashto: پښتونوالی‎) or Pakhtunwali is a non-written ethical code and traditional lifestyle which the indigenous Pashtun people follow.[1][2] It could be said that it is simply a system oflaw and governance from the prehistoric times when humanity was completely illiterate or unable to use written instruments such as books, and is preserved and used up until modern times but mostly in the rural tribal areas. Some in the Indian subcontinent refer to it as "Pathanwali".[3] Its meaning may also be interpreted as "the way of the Pashtuns" or "the code of life".[4] Pashtunwali dates back to ancient pre-Islamic times and is widely practiced among Pashtuns,[5] especially among the non-urbanized Pashtuns in the countryside. In addition to being practiced by members of the Pashtun diaspora, it has been adopted by some non-Pashtun Afghans and Demographics of kistanis that live in the Pashtun regions or close to the Pashtuns, who have gradually becomePashtunized over time.[4]

Overview[edit]

Further information: Pashtun people, Name of Afghanistan, and Afghan (name)
The native Pashtun tribes, often described as fiercely independent people,[6] have inhabited the Pashtunistan region (Afghanistan) since at least the 1st millennium BC.[7][8][9] During that period, much of their mountainous territory has remained outside government rule or control. This is perhaps the main reason why indigenous Pashtuns still follow Pashtunwali, which is a basic common law of the land or "code of life".
Pashtunwali rules are accepted in Afghanistan and Pakistan (mainly in and around the Pashtunistan region), and also in some Pashtun communities around the world. Some non-Pashtun Afghans and others have also adopted its ideology or practices for their own benefit. Conversely, many urbanized Pashtuns tend to ignore the rules of Pashtunwali. Passed on from generation to generation, Pashtunwali guides both individual and communal conduct. It is practiced by the majority of Pashtuns and helps to promote Pashtunization.[4]
Ideal Pukhtun behaviour approximates the features Pukhtunwali, the code of the Pukhtuns, which includes the following traditional features: courage (tora), revenge (badal), hospitality (melmestia), generosity to a defeated...[10]
—Maliha Zulfacar, 1999
Pashtuns embrace an ancient traditional, spiritual, and communal identity tied to a set of moral codes and rules of behaviour, as well as to a record of history spanning some seventeen hundred years.[11]
Pashtunwali promotes self-respect, independence, justice, hospitality, love, forgiveness, revenge and tolerance toward all (especially to strangers or guests).[12] It is considered to be the personal responsibility of every Pashtun to discover and rediscover Pashtunwali's essence and meaning.
It is the way of the Pathans. We have melmestia, being a good host, nanawatai, giving asylum, and badal, vengeance. Pashtuns live by these things.[13]
—Abdur, A character in Morgen's War
The Pathan tribes are always engaged in private or public war. Every man is a warrior, a politician and a theologian. Every large house is a real feudal fortress....Every family cultivates its vendetta; every clan, its feud.... Nothing is ever forgotten and very few debts are left unpaid.
Winston Churchill (My Early Life - Chapter 11: The Mahmund Valley)

Main principles[edit]

From left to right: Jamaluddin Badar,Nuristan governor, Fazlullah Wahidi, Kunargovernor, Gul Agha Sherzai, Nangarhargovernor, and Lutfullah Mashal, Langhmangovernor, listen to speakers during the first regional Jirga to talk about peace, prosperityand the rehabilitation of Afghanistan.
Hamid Karzai appointed as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration at the July 2002 Loya Jirga in Kabul, Afghanistan.
Although not exclusive, the following ten principles form the major components of Pashtunwali. They are headed with the words of the Pashto language that signify individual or collective Pashtun tribal functions.
  1. Melmastia (hospitality) - Showing hospitality and profound respect to all visitors, regardless of race, religion, national affiliation or economic status and doing so without any hope of remuneration or favour. Pashtuns will go to great lengths to show their hospitality.[4][14][15]
  2. Nanawatai (asylum) - Derived from the verb meaning to go in, this refers to the protection given to a person against his or her enemies. People are protected at all costs; even those running from the law must be given refuge until the situation can be clarified.[4] This was demonstrated when Osama bin Laden was provided special protection by a group of Pashtuns inAbbottabad. Nanawatai can also be used when the vanquished party in a dispute is prepared to go in to the house of the victors and ask for their forgiveness. (It is a peculiar form of "chivalrous" surrender, in which an enemy seeks "sanctuary" at his enemy's house). A notable example is that of Navy Petty Officer First Class Marcus Luttrell, the sole survivor of a US Navy SEAL team ambushed by Taliban fighters. Wounded, he evaded the enemy and was aided by members of the Sabray tribe who took him to their village. The tribal chief protected him, fending off attacking tribes until word was sent to nearby US forces.
  3. Badal (justice) - To seek justice or take revenge against the wrongdoer. There is considered to be no time limit to the period in which revenge can be taken. Justice in Pashtun lore needs elaborating: even a mere taunt (or "Paighor") is regarded as an insult which usually can only be redressed by shedding the taunter's blood. If he is out of reach, his closest male relation must suffer the penalty instead. Badal may lead to a blood feud that can last generations and involve whole tribes with the loss of hundreds of lives. Normally blood feuds in this male-dominated society are settled in a number of ways.[4]
  4. Turah (bravery) - A Pashtun must defend his land, property, family and women from incursions. He should always stand bravely against tyranny and be able to defend the honour of his name. Death can follow if anyone offends this principle.[4]
  5. Sabat (loyalty) - Loyalty must be paid to one's family, friends and tribe members. Pashtuns can never become disloyal as this would be a matter of shame for their families and themselves.
  6. Imandari (righteousness) - A Pashtun must always strive for good in thought, word and deed. Pashtuns must behave respectfully to people, animals and the environment around them. Pollution of the environment or its destruction is against the Pashtunwali.[4]
  7. Isteqamat - Trust in God (known as "Allah" in Arabic and "Khudai" in Pashto).[4] The notion of trusting in the one Creator generally comports to Islamic idea of belief in only one God (tawheed).
  8. Ghayrat (respect, honour and courage) - Pashtuns must demonstrate courage. Their honour, or pride, has great importance in Pashtun society and must be preserved. They must respect themselves and others in order to be able to do so, especially those they do not know. Respect begins at home, among family members and relatives. If one does not have "Ghayrat" they are not classed as a Pashtun.[4]
  9. Naamus (protection of women) - A Pashtun must defend the honour of women at all costs and must protect them from vocal and physical harm.[4]
  10. Nang (Honour) - a Pashtun must defend the weak around him.

Thespis (em grego antigo: Θέσπις) de Icaria (atual Dyonisos, Ática, fl. c. 550 - 500 a. C.) foi um dramaturgo grego do século VI a. C., segundo algumas fontes da Grécia Antiga e especialmente Aristóteles, o primeiro ator do Ocidente a representar um personagem numa peça teatral (em vez de falar como ele próprio). Segundo outras fontes, ele introduziu a figura do ator principal, destacando-se do coro.1 2 É também considerado como o inventor da tragédia3 e o primeiro produtor teatral.
Trazido de Icaria, onde teria nascido, pelo tirano de Atenas, Pisístrato, era um amante da arte de imitar. Quase nada se sabe da vida de Téspis, apenas que teria começado a atuar em coros, chegando a ser líder de um deles (possivelmente por ser chefe de uma aldeia). Viajou pela Grécia, sozinho ou com o seu coro, numa carroça que mais tarde ficaria conhecida como "carro de Téspis" e que lhe servia de meio de transporte e palco para as suas representações.

Histórico[editar | editar código-fonte]

Em 600 a. C., o ateniense Árion de Lesbos, nascido em Metimna, passou a escrever poesia para cantos de coral denominados de ditirambos. Na época, as apresentações públicas possuíam um caráter litúrgico e não artístico. O povo se reunia nas ágoras da cidade para os rituais em louvor a Dionísio. Para tanto, o coro declamava a poesia e dançava a coreografia inspirada nos cânticos ditirâmbicos.
Nesta época, o ator era chamado de hipocritès, ou seja, fingidor ou "respondedor."
Téspis de Ática teve a ousadia de pôr um ator a dialogar com o coro, sendo-lhe assim atribuída a "invenção" do teatro. A esse ator era dado o nome de protagonista, termo que ainda hoje se usa para designar o personagem principal de uma ficção dramática.
No decurso das suas perambulações de uma festividade para outra, chegou a Atenas vencendo o festival em honra de Dioniso denominado a “Grande Dionisíaca”.
Téspis criou o conceito de "monólogo" ao apresentar-se na Grande Dionisíaca da Grécia Antiga, no Século V a.C. em Atenas, munido de máscara e vestindo uma túnica, interpretando o deus Dionísio e destacando-se do coro, sobre a sua carroça (o "carro de Téspis").
Tal atitude era uma grande ousadia já que esse papel era reservado aos sacerdotes ou aos reis. Téspis havia passado por cima da autoridade do arconte, o legislador, e criara um argumento artístico dentro de uma apresentação litúrgica politeísta, criando o papel do protagonista em um movimento que futuramente ficaria conhecido como Tragédia Grega.
Teria também criado o segundo ator, ou o que mais tarde Ésquilo chamaria de deuteragonista, ao interpretar de uma só vez dois personagens distintos, usando para isso, duas máscaras, uma no rosto e outra na nuca.
Ao que parece representava textos moralistas que criticavam o comportamento humano. Não se sabe se é verdade ou não, mas também se diz que introduziu as máscaras e os fatos no teatro, se bem que essa honra seja também atribuída a Ésquilo. Também não é seguro se criou ou não um espaço dedicado exclusivamente às suas representações.
Max Simon Nordau (born Simon Maximilian Südfeld; July 29, 1849 – January 23, 1923), was a Zionist leader, physician, author, and social critic.
He was a co-founder of the World Zionist Organization together with Theodor Herzl, and president or vice president of several Zionist congresses.
As a social critic, he wrote a number of controversial books, including The Conventional Lies of Our Civilisation (1883), Degeneration (1892), and Paradoxes (1896). Although not his most popular or successful work whilst alive,Degeneration is the book most often remembered and cited today.
Nordau was born Simon Maximilian, or Simcha Südfeld on 29 July 1849 in Pest, then part of the Austrian Empire. His father was Gabriel Südfeld, a Hebrew poet. His family were religiousOrthodox Jews and he attended a Jewish elementary school, then a Catholic grammar school, before receiving a medical degree from the University of Budapest in 1872. He then traveled for six years, visiting the principal countries of Europe. He changed his name before going to Berlin in 1873. In 1878, he began the practice of medicine in Budapest. In 1880 he went to Paris.[1] He worked in Paris as a correspondent for Die Neue Freie Presse, and it was in Paris that he spent most of his life.
Before entering the university, he had begun his literary career at Budapest as contributor and dramatic critic for Der Zwischenact. Subsequently, he was an editorial writer and correspondent for several other newspapers. His newspaper writings were collected and furnished the material for his earlier books. He was a disciple of Cesare Lombroso.[1]
Nordau was an example of a fully assimilated and acculturated European Jew. Despite being raised religious, Nordau was an agnostic.[2] He was married to a Protestant Christian woman and, despite his Hungarian background, he felt affiliated to German culture, writing in an autobiographical sketch, "When I reached the age of fifteen, I left the Jewish way of life and the study of the Torah... Judaism remained a mere memory and since then I have always felt as a German and as a German only." Max Nordau was the father of painter Maxa Nordau (1897–1991).[3]
Nordau's conversion to Zionism was eventually triggered by the Dreyfus Affair. Many Jews, amongst them Theodor Herzl, saw in the Dreyfus Affair evidence of the universality of antisemitism.
Nordau went on to play a major role in the World Zionist Organisation; indeed Nordau's relative fame certainly helped bring attention to the Zionist movement. He can be credited with giving the organisation a democratic character.
After the outbreak of the World War I, he was, being a native of Hungary, accused of German sympathies. He denied the charge, and afterward went to reside in Madrid. An attempt to assassinate him was made in the latter part of 1903.[1]

Degeneration[edit]

Nordau's major work Entartung (Degeneration), is a moralistic attack on so-called degenerate art, as well as a polemic against the effects of a range of the rising social phenomena of the period, such as rapid urbanization and its perceived effects on the human body.

This work is cited by William James in his lecture on Neurology and Religion at the beginning of The Varieties of Religious Experience (footnote 4). James mocks the author on the grounds that he exemplifies the then current school of medical materialism, stating that Nordau "has striven to impugn the value of works of genius in a wholesale way (such works of contemporary art, namely, as he himself is unable to enjoy, and they are many) by using medical arguments."[4]

Zionism[edit]

Dreyfus Affair[edit]

Nordau's conversion to Zionism is in many ways typical of the rise of Zionism amongst Western European Jewry. The Dreyfus Affair beginning in 1893 was central to Nordau's conviction that Zionism was now necessary. Herzl's views were formed during his time in France where he recognised the universality of antisemitism; the Dreyfus Affair cemented his belief in the failure of assimilation. Nordau also witnessed the Paris mob outside the École Militaire crying "à morts les juifs!"
His role of friend and advisor to Herzl, who was working as the correspondent for the Vienna Neue Freie Presse, began here in Paris. This trial went beyond a miscarriage of justice and in Herzl's words "contained the wish of the overwhelming majority in France, to damn a Jew, and in this one Jew, all Jews." Whether or not the antisemitism manifested in France during the Dreyfus Affair was indicative of the majority of the French or simply a very vocal minority is open to debate. However the very fact that such sentiment had manifested itself in France was particularly significant. This was the country often seen as the model of the modern enlightened age, that had given the Europe the Great Revolution and consequently the Jewish Emancipation.

Failure of emancipation[edit]

Nordau's work as a critic of European civilisation and where it was heading certainly contributed to his eventual role in Zionism. One of the central tenets of Nordau's beliefs was evolution, in all things, and he concluded that Emancipation was not born out of evolution. French rationalism of the 18th century, based on pure logic, demanded that all men be treated equally. Nordau saw in Jewish Emancipation the result of 'a regular equation: Every man is born with certain rights; the Jews are human beings, consequently the Jews are born to own the rights of man.' This Emancipation was written in the statute books of Europe, but contrasted with popular social consciousness. It was this which explained the apparent contradiction of equality before the law, but the existence of antisemitism, and in particular 'racial' antisemitism, no longer based on old religious bigotry. Nordau cited England as an exception to this continental antisemitism that proved the rule. "In England, Emancipation is a truth…It had already been completed in the heart before legislation expressly confirmed it." Only if Emancipation came from changes within society, as opposed to abstract ideas imposed upon society, could it be a reality. This rejection of the accepted idea of Emancipation was not based entirely on the Dreyfus Affair. It had manifested itself much earlier in Die Konventionellen Lügen der Kulturmenschheit and runs through his denouncing of 'degenerate' and 'lunatic' antisemitism in Die Entartung.

Muscular Judaism[edit]

Further information: Muscular Judaism
Nordau also, at the 1898 Zionist Congress, coined the term "muscular Judaism" (muskel-Judenthum) as a descriptor of a Jewish culture and religion which directed its adherents to reach for certain moral and corporeal ideals which, through discipline, agility and strength, would result in a stronger, more physically assured Jew who would outshine the long-held stereotype of the weak, intellectually sustained Jew. He would further explore the concept of the "muscle Jew" in a 1900 article of the Jewish Gymnastics Journal.[5]

World Zionist Congress[edit]

Nordau was central to the Zionist Congresses which played such a vital part in shaping what Zionism would become. Herzl had favoured the idea of a Jewish newspaper and an elitist "Society of Jews" to spread the ideas of Zionism. It was Nordau, convinced that Zionism had to at least appear democratic, despite the impossibility of representing all Jewish groups, who persuaded Herzl of the need for an assembly. This appearance of democracy certainly helped counter accusations that the "Zionists represented no one but themselves." There would be eleven such Congresses in all, the first, which Nordau organised, was in Basle, 29–31 August 1897. His fame as an intellectual helped draw attention to the project. Indeed the fact that Max Nordau, the trenchant essayist and journalist, was a Jew came as a revelation for many. Herzl obviously took centre stage, making the first speech at the Congress; Nordau followed him with an assessment of the Jewish condition in Europe. Nordau used statistics to paint a portrait of the dire straits of Eastern Jewry and also expressed his belief in the destiny of Jewish people as a democratic nation state, free of what he saw as the constraints of Emancipation.
Nordau's speeches to the World Zionist Congress reexamined the Jewish people, in particular stereotypes of the Jews. He fought against the tradition of seeing the Jews as merchants or business people, arguing that most modern financial innovations such as insurance had been invented by gentiles. He saw the Jewish people as having a unique gift for politics, a calling which they were unable to fulfil without their own nation-state. Whereas Herzl favoured the idea of an elite forming policy, Nordau insisted the Congress have a democratic nature of some sort, calling for votes on key topics. Nordau was also a staunch eugenicist. [2] (in Future Human Evolution - page 85)
As the 20th century progressed, Nordau seemed increasingly irrelevant as a cultural critic. The rise of Modernism, the popularity of very different thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, the huge technological changes and the devastation of the First World War, changed European society enormously. Even within the Zionist movement, other strains of thought were growing in popularity - influenced by Nietzsche, Socialism and other ideas. Nordau, in comparison, seemed very much a creature of the late 19th century.
Nordau died in Paris, France in 1923. In 1926 his remains were moved to Tel Aviv's Trumpeldor Cemetery.
He is currently the namesake of Kansas City Council's BBYO chapter Nordaunian AZA # 22 [6]
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